Before its cosmetic applications were discovered, Botulinum toxin (BoNT) known as Botox, was one of the most lethal biological weapons. Utilized throughout World War II, the number of casualties caused by its inhalation made it an effective military tool for attack (Tatu, 2021). Once infected with Botulism, the body experiences progressive weakness until full-body paralysis occurs. This includes all the smooth muscle in the lungs and heart, leading to death by suffocation (Dhaked, 2010). Over the years, Botulinum toxin has been administered to treat various neurological and muscular conditions. Research on this neurotoxin continues to present new applications in the medical field (Grando and Zachary, 2018); however, research on its detection methods and environmental impacts fails to reach similar standards (Dhaked, 2010). 

Produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum, this toxin’s chemical structure consists of a heavy and light chain. The heavy chain binds to the presynaptic membrane of the axon terminal, and the light chain breaks apart the proteins responsible for production of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that induces involuntary muscle movement (Benham, 1985).

Recent research has found that BoNT receptors are not limited to neuronal cells, thus expanding the possibilities of BoNT’s treatment applications. Recent studies have explored the treatment of hypertrophic scars using Botox and mesenchymal stem cells (Hu, et al., 2020). The traditional use of steroid cream to treat these scars is accompanied by numerous side effects. Mesenchymal stem cells have similar therapeutic effects to steroid cream, which prevents tissue fibrosis development and promotes tissue repair (Hu, et al., 2020). Despite being unclear on BoNT’s inhibiting properties, scientists have connected these results to its ability to minimize scarring in primates by preventing muscle and skin contraction during wound healing (Hu, et al., 2020). Botox inhibits the growth of hypertrophic-related fibroblasts, which are responsible for the formation of connective tissue. Despite having been deemed effective in treating this condition, the high cost and number of regulations have not deemed it as a realistic replacement for steroid treatment (Hu, et al., 2020). 

From an environmental perspective, Botulinum toxin does not pose the same benefits as seen in the medical field. Detection methods still rely on mouse bioassay to confirm contamination. This raises concerns regarding animal testing (Dhaked, 2010). In terms of cost, accessibility, and result accuracy, no alternative methods of detection have been deemed superior to mouse bioassay (Nepal and Jeong, 2020).

Botulinum toxin’s effect on the human body is commonly understood; however, many organisms including some fish and bird species are equally susceptible (Espelund, 2014). For instance, Botulism is one of the most common causes of death for waterfowl (Vidal, et al., 2013). Cattle and fish farms are both susceptible to botulism, which can lead to decreased food production and contamination of surrounding ecosystems (Dhaked, 2010). Organisms that are not affected, such as algae, plants, and invertebrates, may still facilitate the toxins’ infiltration into food webs (Espelund, 2014).

For a drug whose only purpose was death, Botulinum toxin is proving to be just as effective as a means for recovery and health. A substance this threatening, however, requires more efficient detection techniques and a shift away from animal testing. Extended research on Botulinum toxin’s ability to substitute steroid treatments for other medical conditions should be researched, as well as its environmental impacts, and methods of recovery for ecosystems post-contamination. 

References:

Benham, C., 1985. Acetylcholine activates an inward current in single mammalian smooth muscle cells. Nature,  316, pp.345–347.  https://doi.org:10.1038/316345a0.

Dhaked, R., Singh, M., Singh, P. and Gupta, P., 2010. Botulinum toxin: Bioweapon & magic drug. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 132(5), pp.489–503. PMID: 21149997.

Espelund, M., 2014. Botulism outbreaks in natural environments – an update. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5, p.88235. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00287.

Grando, S. and Zachary, C., 2018. The non‐neuronal and nonmuscular effects of botulinum toxin: an opportunity for a deadly molecule to treat disease in the skin and beyond. British Journal of Dermatology, 178(5), pp.1011–1019. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.16080.

Hu, C., Tseng, Y., Lee, C., Chiou, C., Chuang, S., Yang, J. and Lee, O., 2020. Combination of mesenchymal stem cell-conditioned medium and botulinum toxin type A for treating human hypertrophic scars. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery, 73(3), pp.516-527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2019.07.010.

Nepal, M. and Jeong, T., 2020. Alternative methods for testing Botulinum toxin: Current status and future perspectives. Biomolecules and Therapeutics, 28(4), pp.302–310. doi: 10.4062/biomolther.2019.200.

Tatu, L. and Feugeas J., 2021. Botulinum toxin in WW2 German and allied armies: Failures and myths of weaponization. European Neurology, 84(1), pp.53–60. https://doi.org/10.1159/000512812.

Vidal, D., Anza, I., Taggart, M. A., Perez-Ramrez, E., Crespo, E., Hofle, U. and Mateo, R., 2013. Environmental factors influencing the prevalence of a Clostridium botulinum type C/D mosaic strain in nonpermanent Mediterranean wetlands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 79(14), pp.4264–4271. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01191-13

Image References

Montal, M., 2010. Botulinum Neurotoxin: A Marvel of Protein Design. Available at: https://www.worldofmolecules.com/disease/botulinum-toxin-molecule.html (Accessed: 23 September 2023).

Progressive Animal Welfare Society (PAWS), 2016. Waterfowl. Available at: https://www.paws.org/resources/waterfowl/ (Accessed: 30 September 2023)