MacArthur Park

According to a poll conducted by ESPN, figure skating ranked as the most anticipated sport of the 2026 Winter Olympics among U.S adults, drawing 59% of Olympic fans and 53% of female fans (Gibson 2026). While audiences are captivated by the artistry of the sport, much of the excitement stems from the sports’ highly impressive, technical elements. Competitive programs must satisfy specific technical requirements established by the International Skating Union such as jumps, spins, and step sequences, each of which is evaluated for its difficulty and execution (ISU 2024). Among these elements, jumps, specifically the Axel, are notably highlighted to be the most technically demanding. 

Competitive figure skating consists of six primary jumps: toe loop, Salchow, loop, flip, Lutz, and Axel (Rauer et al. 2022). Each jump is defined by its direction of approach, edge used during take off and whether the skater uses a toe pick to assist in the jump (Yamaguchi and Sakurai 2025). Despite minute differences, most jumps follow a similar trajectory, where the skater will take off while traveling backwards and complete an integer number of rotations before landing. The Axel, however, breaks the pattern. Often regarded as the most difficult jump in figure skating, the Axel features a unique take off in which it is performed while the skater is travelling forwards, resulting in an additional half-rotation in order for the skater to land backwards on a single blade (Yu et al. 2025). The added rotational significantly increases the difficulty, demanding exceptional explosive power to acquire the momentum necessary to complete the element. 

The Axel can be divided into three phases: the entrance, the flight and the landing phase (Figure 1). The entrance phase begins with the lead up and ends with the take off. The flight phase consists of the skater’s rotations in the air, and the landing phase begins the moment the blade touches the ice and ends when the skater is skating backwards on their full outside edge (Mazurkiewicz et al. 2018). 

Figure 1: Sequential image illustrating the phases of an Axel jump. The sequence begins with the entrance phase, where the skater begins with a forward approach and initiates the take off. This is followed by the flight phase, during which the skater rotates in the air about their vertical axis, and finally the landing phase where the blade makes contact with the ice and the skater exits the jump backwards (Brain n.d).

As the sport has progressed, technical expectations have increased accordingly, where in modern competitions, successful programs typically require athletes to perform triple and even quadruple jumps, rotating on their vertical axis three or more times (Mazurkiewicz et al. 2018). 

A study conducted by Mazurkiewicz et al (2018) analyzed the kinematic parameters for performing the various Axels, and identified the physical parameters which permit athletes to complete additional rotations. Their results demonstrated that the critical differences occur during the entrance phase, where skaters must adjust their own mechanics to reduce horizontal velocity, and increase vertical velocity to gain greater air time, allowing for opportunity to increase their rotations. However, jump height alone is not sufficient to produce additional rotations. Yamaguchi and Sakurai (2025) noted that the number of rotations achieved in the air is largely dependent on the skater’s rotational velocity. This velocity is determined by angular momentum of the entire body during the entrance phase, which is then conserved as the skater is airborne. Through biomechanical studies, Yamaguchi and Sakurai determined that the total angular momentum is relatively consistent across different jump types, however depending on the jump, the skater generates it in different ways using different combinations of body movements to increase their rotational speed once in the air. Ultimately, the Axel demonstrates the high technicality behind modern figure skating, reliant on a precise combination of the various physics of motions, allowing skaters to complete muti-rotational jumps which continue to push the limits of the sport.

Works Cited

Charlotte GibsonFeb 6, 2026. 2026. “2026 Winter Olympics Poll: Figure Skating, Snowboarding Draw Most Fan Interest.” ESPN.Com, February 6. https://www.espn.com/olympics/story/_/id/47839787/2026-winter-olympics-milan-cortina-fan-survey-results.

International Skating Union. 2024. Special Regulations and Technical Rules: Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance. https://isu-d8g8b4b7ece7aphs.a03.azurefd.net/isuproduction/uploads/images/isustatutes/documents/2024_Special_Regulation_SP_and_Ice_Dance_and_Technical_Rules_SP__and_ID_Final_rev.pdf#page=4.06 

Mazurkiewicz, Anna, Dagmara Iwańska, and Czesław Urbanik. 2018. “Biomechanics of the Axel Paulsen Figure Skating Jump.” Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism 25 (2): 3–9. https://doi.org/10.2478/pjst-2018-0007.

Rauer, Thomas, Hans-Christoph Pape, Matthias Knobe, Tim Pohlemann, and Bergita Ganse. 2022. “Figure Skating: Increasing Numbers of Revolutions in Jumps at the European and World Championships.” PLOS ONE 17 (11): e0265343. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265343.

Tennis, Hidden. 2023. “TENNIS VS ICE SKATING. THE PERFECT TENNIS PLAYER.” Hidden Tennis, September 29. https://www.hiddentennis.com/tennis-vs-ice-skating-the-perfect-tennis-player/.

Yamaguchi, Mizuki, and Shinji Sakurai. 2025. “Comparisons of Angular Momentum at Takeoff in Six Types of Jumps in Women’s Figure Skating.” Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 7 (August). https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1597598.

Yu, Jialiang, Mingda Li, and Zhiyuan Chen. 2025. “Comparative Study on Bilateral Lower Extremity Joint Mechanics and Muscle Synergy Patterns in Axel Jumps between Elite and Amateur Single Skaters.” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology 13 (July): 1639807. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2025.1639807.